NETWORKS

The scope of a network refers to its geographical size. A network can range in size from a few computers in one office to thousands of computers linked together over great distances.

Network space is determined by the size of the organization or the distance between users on the network. The scope determines how the network is designed and what physical components are used in its construction.

There are general types of network scope: 

    1. Local Area Networks

    2. Wide Area Networks

Local Area Network

A local area networks (LAN) connects computers that are located near each other. For example, two computers connected together in an office or two buildings connected together by a high speed wire can be considered a LAN. A corporate network that includes several adjacent building can also be considered a LAN.

Wide Area Network

A wide area network (WAN) connects a number of computers located at a greater distance from one another. For example, two or more computers connecting opposite sides of the world is considered a WAN. A WAN can be made up of a number of interconnected LANs. For example, the internet is really a WAN

The basic connectivity components of a network include the cable, network adapters, and wireless devices that connect the computers in the network.

These components enable data to be sent to each computer on the network, thereby permitting the computers to communicate with each other.

Common connectivity components of a network are :

1. Network adapters
2. Network cables
3. Wireless communication devices  

Network adapters

Network adapters constitute the physical interface between the computer and the network cable. Network adapters, also known as network interface cards, are installed into expansion slot in each computer and server on the network. After the network adapter is installed, the network cable is attached to the adapter’s port to physically connect the computer to the network. Each network adapter has a unique address that is incorporated into chips on the card. This address is called the physical, or media access control (MAC), Address.

Network cables

You connect computers together in a network by using cables to carry signals between computers. A cable that connects two computers or networks components is called a segment. Cable differ in their capabilities and are categorized according to their ability to transmit data at varying speeds, with different error rates. The three major categories of cables that connect most networks are: twisted-pair, coaxial, fiber-optic

Wireless communication devices 

You use wireless components to connect networks over distances for which standard network adapters and cable options are not technically or economically feasible. Wireless networks consist of wireless components communicating with LANs.

There are two common techniques for wireless transmission in a LAN: Infrared transmission and narrowband radio transmission.

HISTORY AND INTERNET FUNCTIONS

What is the Internet? how the initial formation of the Internet. yes sometimes we are just as user and not knowing the origin of the internet that we use today. Well this time it will discuss the history and functions of the Internet that part I quoted from wikipedia.

 The Internet is a computer network established by the United States Department of Defense in 1969, through a project called ARPANET ARPA (Advanced Research Project Agency Network), where they demonstrate how the hardware and UNIX-based computer software, we can do within a short distance communication infinity through the phone line. ARPANET project designing a network, reliability, how much information can be transferred, and finally all the standards that they set into the embryo of a new protocol development is now known as TCP / IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol).

The initial purpose of the construction project was for military purposes. At that time the United States Department of Defense (U.S. Department of Defense) create a computer network system that is spread by linking computers in areas vital to address the problem in case of nuclear attack and to avoid the occurrence of centralized information, which in the event of war can be easily destroyed.

At first ARPANET only connecting 4 sites, ie the Stanford Research Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, University of Utah, where they form a single integrated network in 1969, and in general the ARPANET was introduced in October 1972. Not long after the project is growing rapidly in all regions, and all universities in the country wanted to join, thus making it difficult to set the ARPANET.

Therefore, ARPANET split widened two, namely “MILNET” for military purposes and the “ARPANET” new smaller for non-military purposes such as, universities. Combined both networks eventually known as the DARPA Internet, which then reduces to the Internet.

Interest in commercial use of the Internet becomes hot topic for debate. Although commercial use is prohibited, the exact definition of commercial use could be unclear and subjective. Clean UUCP and X.25 IPSS had no such restrictions, which will eventually see the official restrictions on the use of ARPANET and NSFNET UUCPNet connection. Some UUCP links still remain connected to it, however, as the administrator throwing eye to their operations.

During the 1980s, the first Internet service provider (ISP) company was formed. Companies like PSINet, UUNET, Netcom, and Portal Software was formed to provide services to regional research networks and provide alternate network access, UUCP-based email and Usenet News to the public. That the first commercial dialup ISP in the United States the World, opened in 1989.

In 1992, Congress passed and Advanced Scientific-Technology Act, 42 USC § 1862 (g), which allows the NSF to support access by public education and research for computer networks that are not only used for research and educational purposes, thus allowing for the interconnection of the NSFNET with a commercial network. This has caused controversy in research and education community, who fear commercial use of the network may cause the Internet that are less responsive to their needs, and commercial network providers in the community, who felt that government subsidies have given an unfair advantage to some organizations.

In 1990, ARPANET was followed and replaced by new network technologies and the project came to a close. new service provider’s network, including PSINet, Alter, CERFnet, ANS CO + RE, and many others that offer network access to commercial customers. NSFNET backbone no longer the de facto and Internet exchange points. The Commercial Internet eXchange (CIX), Metropolitan Area BursaNetwork Access Point (NAP), which became the primary interconnections between the many networks. Restrictions final carry commercial traffic ended on April 30, 1995 when the National Science Foundation ended sponsorship of the NSFNET Backbone Service and the service ended. NSF provides initial support for the NAP and temporary support to assist local research and education network transition to a commercial ISP. NSF also sponsors a very high speed Backbone Network Service (vBNS), which continues to provide support for the supercomputer centers and research and education in the United States.

Elements of the Web Site or the Site

To build the site may take a few elements that must exist for the site to run correctly and as expected. The elements that must exist within the site include:

a. Domain Name Domain name or domain name is usually called the permanent address of the site in the Internet world that are used to identify a site or in other words the domain name is the address used to find our site on the internet. The term commonly used is the URL. Example of a URL is http://www.octa_haris.tripod.com–dapat also without the www -
There are many kinds of domain names we can choose as you wish. Here are some domain names are often used and available on the internet:

1. Generic Domains (gTLDs)
Is the domain name that ends with
with. Com. Net. Org. Edu. Mil or. Gov. Domain type is often called top level domain name and domain are not affiliated by country, so anyone can register.
Ø.com: is the top level domain dedicated to the needs of “commercial”.
Ø.edu: a domain that is devoted to the needs of education (education)
Ø.gov: is the domain for the administration (government)
Ø.mil: is the domain for the needs of the armed forces (military)
Ø.org: domain for non-profit organization or institution (Organization).

2. Country-Specific Domains (ccTLDs)
Domain that is associated with two-letter extension, and often also called second-level domains, like. Id (Indonesia),. Au (Australia),. Jp (Japan) and others. This domain is operated and have been registered enter the country. In Indonesia, these domains ending in,. Co.id,. Ac.id,. Go.id,. Mil.id,. Or.id, and the recently added by war.net.id,. Miles . id, and web.id. The use of each of the different endings depending on the user and its use, among others:
Ø.co.id: For enterprises that have a valid legal entity
Ø.ac.id: For Educational Institutions
Ø.go.id: Special for the Republic of Indonesia Government Institutions
Ø.mil.id: Especially for Military Institutions of the Republic of Indonesia
Ø.or.id: For all kinds of organizations yand not included in the category “ac.id”, “co.id”, “go.id”, “mil.id” and other
Ø.war.net.id: for internet cafe industry in Indonesia
Ø.sch.id: specifically for education institutions that provide education such as elementary, junior high or high school and
Ø.web.id: Intended for business entities, organizations or individuals who perform activities in the worl Wide Web.
The domain name of each site in the world do not have the same so that no single site that will be found mixed up or confused the name of its Web page. To obtain a domain name rental done, usually within a certain term (annual).

b. Hosting
Hosting can be defined as the space contained in the hard drive to store various data, files, images etc. to be displayed on site. The amount of data that can be added depending on the size of hosting the rented / owned, the greater the greater the hosting of data that can be entered and displayed on the site.
Hosting also be obtained by renting. The amount of disk space hosting determined by the size in MB (Mega Bytes) or GB (Giga Byte). Lama rental hosting calculated average per year. Rental hosting done from tenant companies web hosting that are often found in both Indonesia and Overseas.

c. Scripts / Languages ​​Program
It is the language used to translate each command in the site when accessed. Types of scripts is critical static, dynamic or interactive a site. The more variety of scripts that use it will show the site more dynamic and interactive as well as look good. Good site can be seen by visitor feedback and frequency of visits.
Various scripts are currently exists to support the quality of the site. That many types of scripts used by designers such as HTML, ASP, PHP, JSP, Java Scripts, Java applets and so on. The basic language used every site is HTML and the ASP and the other is a language that acts as a regulator of supporting dynamic, and interactive sites.
Scripts ASP, PHP, JSP or other can be made yourself, can also be purchased from vendors scripts are usually located in a foreign country. Scripts average price is very expensive because it’s hard to make, usually in the tens of millions. Scripts are typically used to build a portal of news, articles, discussion forums, guest books, members of the organization, email, mailing lists and others that require an update every time. Special Online Jilbab using language ASP (Active Server Pages).

d. Web Design
After doing leasing the domain and hosting and mastery scripts, the most important elements of the site and the main design. Web Design determine the quality and beauty of the site. Design is very influential to the assessment of whether a visitor will be nice web site.
To create a website can usually be done alone or hire a web designer. At present very many web designers services, especially in big cities. Please note that the quality of the site is determined by the quality of the designer. More and more web designers mastery of a variety of programs / software support site development it will produce more high quality sites, and vice versa. Services are web designers who generally require the highest cost of all site development costs and all that tergantu ng designer quality.

e. Publications
The existence of the site is useless built without visited or known by the public or visitors to the internet. Because the site is effective or not depends on the size of incoming visitors and comments. To introduce the site to the public requires a so-called publicity or promotion.

Publication sites in the community can be done in various ways such as with Pamphlets contain-Pamphlets contain, flyers, billboards and so forth but this way can be said is less effective and very limited. I usually do and most effective with unlimited space or time is a direct publication on the internet via search engines, search engines (search engines, like Yahoo, Google, Search Indonesia, etc.)
How to publications in search engines is free and some are paid. What is free is usually limited and long enough to get in and be recognized on search engines like Yahoo or Google. How effective publicity is to pay, despite having a little issue but the site will quickly get into search engines and is known by visitors.

The first mobile phone with Internet connectivity is the Nokia 9000 Communicator, launched in Finland in 1996. Continuity of services on mobile internet access is very limited until the prices come down from the provider network models and began developing systems and services easily accessible on mobile phones. NTT DoCoMo in Japan launched its first mobile Internet service, i-mode, in 1999 and is regarded as the birth of mobile Internet services. In 2001 the mobile phone mail system with Research in Motion to their Blackberry products launched in the U.S.. In order to efficiently utilize the small screen and small keypad and a typical mobile phone one-handed operation, a particular document and the network model has been created for mobile devices, the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP). 

Most mobile Internet devices operate using WAP services. The growth of mobile telephone service was originally an Asian phenomenon, especially with Japan, South Korea and Taiwan all Internet users quickly find the majority of them access the resources via telephone, not by the PC. [Citation needed ] Developing countries followed, with India, South Africa, Kenya, Philippines and Pakistan all report that the majority of their domestic users accessing the Internet from mobile phones than PCs. Europe and North America using the Internet is influenced by a large installed base of personal computers, and mobile internet access growing more gradually, but has achieved national penetration rate of 20-30% in most Western countries. [Citation needed] The cross-over occurred in 2008, when Internet access more mobile devices than personal computers. In many parts of the developing world, the ratio of 10 mobile phone users for a single user PC.

IP ADDRESSING

Using Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)  requires that an IP address be provided for each computer, either automatically by Microsoft Windows, dynamically through the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) service, or statically by using an IP address that you have obtained from your internet service provider (ISP).

Each TCP/IP host in identified by a logical IP address. A unique IP address is required for each host and network component that communicates by using TCP/IP.

The IP address identifies a system’s location on the network in the same way that a street address identifies a house on a city block. Just as a street address must identify a unique residence, an IP address must be globally unique and have a uniform format.

Network ID

Each IP address defines the network ID and host ID. The network ID identifies the systems that are located on the same physical segment. All systems on the same physical segment must have the same network ID. The network ID must be unique to the internetwork.

Host ID

The host ID identifies a workstation, server, router, or other TCP/IP host within a segment. The address for each host must be unique to the network ID.      

Address Classes

The internet community has defined five IP address classes to accommodate networks of varying size. The class of address defines which bits are used for the network ID and which bits are used for the host ID. It also defines the possible number of networks and the number of hosts per network.

Class A

Class A addresses are assigned to network with a very large number of hosts. The high-order bit in a class A address is always set to zero. The next seven bits complete the network ID. The remaining 24 bits represent the host ID. This allows for 126 networks and approximately 17 million hosts per network.

Class B

Class B addresses are assigned to medium-sized to large-sized networks. The two high-order bits in a class B address always set to binary 1 0. The next 14 bits complete the network ID. The remaining 16 bits represent the host ID. This allows for 16,384 networks and approximately 65,000 hosts per network.

Class C

Class C addresses are used for small local area networks (LANs). The three high-order bits in a class C address are always set to binary 1 1 0. The next 21 bits complete the network ID. The remaining 8 bits represent the host ID. This allows for approximately 2 million networks and 254 hosts per network.

OPERATING SYSTEMS

The fundamental core of a computer is its operating system : the software that controls its hardware. As its name suggests, the operating system operates the computer. It loads applications into the computer’s memory, run these applications, and manages peripheral devices, such as disk and printers.

A computer environment that consists of multiple computers and printers can be connected together to exchange data and information. Such a group of connected computers and devices is called a network.

Coordinating the numerous applications that run simultaneously on a network and managing the various peripheral devices attached to a network requires additional support. The network operating system provides this support in the form of networking features. Microsoft Windows is a new generation network operating system that provides improved infrastructure, management, and application support to network users and organizations.

Microsoft Windows provides an array of tools to assist the network administrator in simplifying day to day administrative tasks and in configuring client computers. Microsoft Windows provides advanced capabilities for automating many of these tasks, thus decreasing overhead costs.

An operating system is software that provides the means for applications to interact with the computer’s hardware. An operating system manages four key aspects of a computer’s operation : hardware management, software management, memory management, and data management.

1. Hardware management

The operating system enables the computer to communicate with peripheral devices, such as a printer or a mouse. 

2. Software management

The operating system provides a mechanism for initiating processes that include programs, such as Microsoft Word and Microsoft Power Point.

3. Memory management

The operating system allocates memory to each application, without affecting the memory used by other applications. 

4. Data management

The operating system manages files stored on hard disks and other mass-storage devices. The operating system enables applications to create and open files, transfer data between devices, and perform such file-management tasks as renaming and deleting.

The operating system coordinates the interaction between the computer and applications that run on it. It controls the flow of data within the computer and provides the graphical user interface (GUI), a mean of interacting with the computer. The GUI provides an intuitive graphical way of issuing commands to the system, as compared to a text-based environment.

HISTORY OF COMPUTER

Although machines capable of performing mathematical calculations date back to the 17^th century, it was not until 1945, that engineers built the first general purpose programmable computer.

This programmable computer was constructed by John Presper Eckert and John W Mauchly at the University of Pennsylvania. It was secretly developed during World War II. The ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) was used by the United States Army’s Ballistic Research Laboratory to calculate the trajectories of projectiles and improve the accuracy of gunners. The 30-ton machine accommodates about 18,000 square feet of floor space and ran at a dismal 125 kilohertz.

Few inventions have advance as rapidly as the computer. Today’s personal computers operate at a speed of up to 450 megahertz and are compact enough to fit on a desk or lap.

The first personal computer was built in 1975. It was called the Altair. Two years later the computer went the main-stream with the introduction of the Apple II, and personal computers are now found in offices, homes and classrooms around the world. Among the things you can do with a computer: word processing, spreadsheets, desktop publishing and internet browsing. Some people said the computer has made many things 1,000 times easier, better and more fun.

Thinking Positive When Facing a Disaster

At the time of the affected positively Are You Thinking? Maybe yes or no. Lately much of a disaster that came and went. Tsunamis, earthquakes, storms and flooding attack humans. This incident made the most of their berburuk They thought of God because it had lowered the disaster.

Positive thinking is not easy, especially when we face disaster. Not as easy to write or read a post today, but at least you or I at least remember the principles of positive thinking, although only a few points only.
There are some things that need to be developed after the disaster:

1. Disasters are part of the dynamics of life, the more you are robust in the face of disaster, the more powerful it you deal with life.
2. Disaster is a natural phenomenon which can be a practice exam and even punishment from God or a disaster may be caused by man, then as early as possible to apply the love of your environment no matter how small.
3. Thank God after the disaster because you are still alive right? and survived the death.

Some post-disaster actions:
1. Stay Calm and Tough
2. Mutual help between fellow human beings, not a particular group, race, religion or country, because all equal in the eyes of your God.
3. For those of you who are relatively young and strong, the old precedence in many ways, queuing up food, water, etc in receiving aid. takes precedence over people than you.
4. Permanent Smile
5. Remain Optimistic Staring future. Hope is the soul and the hum of life, hope and pray all recovered as before and try to based on an optimism.
6. Stay humorous in a state of sentimental ones, because laughter provides an opportunity for us to be more fresh and less to forget what happened to us

W.W. Ziege had said. "There will be no one who can stop a positive mentality to achieve its objectives. Conversely, there is nothing in this world that can help a person who has a negative mentality. "
If we are a positive minded, we are certainly capable of producing something. We will be more creative rather than react. Clearly, we are more concentrated to strive to reach the goals just kept thinking positive than negative things that might happen in our daily lives.
Life and happiness a person can not be measured by the size of a degree, position and family background. What is seen is how the way people think that. Indeed, our success is more influenced by the way we think.
Remember the words of Robert J. Hastings, "The place and circumstances does not guarantee happiness. We're the one who must decide whether we want to be happy or not. And so we took the decision, then happiness will come. "

With a positive attitude does not mean that has guaranteed the achievement of a success. However, if our attitude is positive, at least we're on the road to success. Successful or not we will be determined by what we do along the way we've been through it.(quoted and translated from fbblogger.com)

QCC

Quality Control Circles or used to called QCC is a small group of employee (usually between 3 to 10 people) from the same scope of work, who voluntarily doing the activity of control and improvement continuously using quality control techniques.   

QCC GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

Continuous activity, participation of all members, using QC methode, independent self-development, collective group development are the part of corporate quality management activity.

Basic Idea of QCC 

1. Respecting individual and build fun work place. Having important meaning for company and employee (human respect)  
2. Raise complete individual ability so that the ability can be describe and with unlimited possibility  

3. Increase employee participation in contribution for enhancement, development and improvement of company (sense of belonging)

Key To Success Of QCC 

1. Support environment  

2. Commitment from the top managements 

3. Selection of appropriate goals/objectives 

4. Clear information and good communication  

5. Willing/compliant character of the members 

6. Good and proper training 

7. Grow gradually but steady 

8. Always open and positive


QCC Detention 

1. Less of commitment 2. Less of human source
3. Less of participation  
4. Time limitation  
5. Less of understanding  
6. Less of control 
7. External restrictions  
8. Ineffective training
 
Benefits QCC for Employee 
 
1. Tools for communication improvement  
2. Tools for management practicing and improvement activity  
3. Tools for human relationship and build strong team work and harmonious

Benefits QCC For Company

Escalation quality of QCDSMPE (Quality, Cost, Delivery, Safety, Morality, Productivity & Environment) that can lead the company to the competitive level toward to excellent company.

Improvement activity doing continuously and recurrent to obtain the best result. No stop word for doing the improvement. This is cycle activity consist of PLAN, DO, CHECK, ACTION (PDCA).

STATIC ELECTRICITY

Static Electricity is generated when a different material comes in contact or part mutually. A fire will surely break out, if conditions are ready.

 

1.    Danger of the fire explosion

The theory says that combustion is the phenomenon to emit heat and light by oxidation or resolution reaction. The combustion can be occur when the necessary three elements happen are the combustible material, the oxidant (air or oxygen), and the ignition source (ignition energy). The combustion will not happen if the necessity is lacked.

It is combination of oxygen, heat is discharged and generation of heat reaction (progress with the combustible material that burns by chemical reaction)

The heat that is generated in the combustion can be economically used as a fuel. This combustible fuel can be divided roughly into three kinds (a solid fuel, a liquid fuel and the gaseous fuel).

The ignition source gives activation energy which necessary for starting combustion process.

heat rising, an electric spark, static electricity, lightning, etc by another naked flame and heating become ignition sources through of course corresponding with various fire as ignition sources also. 

2.    Cause of a fire and explosion

Once fire and explosion appear it can make heavy casualties at that that time.

Moreover, it can be turn to a fear with a large scale destruction of the facilities, large container and further is lost of life.

Thus, cause of fire and explosion necessary to analyze in order to handle the fire itself and avoid unwanted damage.

Fire and explosion can be caused by Static electricity

As mentioned above that fire can be arise when the combustible material and the oxygen meet, together with friction and collision, thereafter can generate static electricity. On specific energy, spark occur.

Static electricity is generated if the object (material) does the contact separation movement, and electrified on the condition. It is generally called as the generation of static electricity to discharge this electrified object.

If the electrification potential rises even if the electric capacity is the same, the electrical discharge energy becomes it

Restriction of fire

Don’t bring lighter and cellular phone into work place.

Smoke at the smoking place.

Don’t use fire without permission.

Electrical equipment should be fire proof.

Restriction of Collision, Friction

Use non-spark tools.

Use pure aluminium plate for lid of the tank.

Use shaft cover.

Use scrapper made of wood or rubber.

Use conductive V-belt.

5S BASIC

Each of the 5 pillars (5S) is a “structural element” to support and maintain the future improvements within a company and one of the activities that will help ensure our company’s survival. 5 pillars (5S) are short for: Sort, Set in Order, Shine, Standardize and Sustain. 5S represents 5 disciplines for maintaining a visual workplace (visual controls and information systems).

Many do not believe that having a neat and clean environment aids production, however the fact remains that

•          A neat and clean factory has higher productivity

•          A neat and clean factory is safer

•          A neat and clean factory meets deadlines better

•          A neat and clean factory produces fewer defects

•          A neat and clean factory is less hassle

•          A neat and clean factory isn’t an embarrassment

The description 5S

     1. SORT - All unneeded tools, parts and supplies are removed from the area

Sort corresponds to the principles of JIT:

     “…only what is needed, in the amounts necessary, as they are required…”

Hence when you Sort you remove everything that is not required for current production, this does not mean:

•          Only items that will definitely not be needed are removed

•          Items are arranged into neat rows or patterns
  

2. SET IN ORDER - A place for everything and everything is in its place

Once SORT is complete, Set in Order ensures that the items necessary for current production are:

•          Optimised in positions / order for current production

•          Labelled correctly and clearly so anyone can use the area

•          Standardisation becomes the norm, with

•          Visual controls inform staff of standard procedures, item areas and volumes, WIP status etc…

     3. SHINE - The area is cleaned as the work is performed (best) and\or there is a routine to keep the work area clean.

4. Standardize - Cleaning and identification methods are consistently applied

By maintaining the gains made from sort, set and shine, we have effectively standardised them. The main goal is to avoid going back to the bad old days by ensuring that daily activities are sufficient to maintain the status quo. Effectively turn the first 3Ss into a habit

5. Sustain - 5S is a habit and is continually improved

Without discipline to sustain 5S, the previous status quo of muck and madness. Discipline is a bad description, making 5S a habit is more accurate. The Sustain pillar differs from the previous 4 in that it is not directly measurable not implemented through a set number of techniques. It differs from the 4^th pillar by winning hearts and minds and getting staff to want to apply best practice.

5-S is for you.

Clean-up and organize your work area every day so that each new day is easier and safer than the day before. Share your input with your leaders so that the tools you need will be available to you, increasing your efficiency. Volunteer to help with the 5S tours and 5S events.

Take a good look around...Imagine zero waste/zero confusion!

FIRE EXTINGUISHER

A portable fire extinguisher is a "first aid" device and is very effective when used while the fire is small. The use of fire extinguisher that matches the class of fire, by a person who is well trained, can save both lives and property. Portable fire extinguishers must be installed in workplaces regardless of other firefighting measures. The successful performance of a fire extinguisher in a fire situation largely depends on its proper selection, inspection, maintenance, and distribution.

Fire is a chemical reaction involving the rapid burning of fuel. Fuel can be any combustible material–solid, liquid or gas. Fires need four elements to occur: fuel, oxygen (16% or more), heat, and chemical reaction. Remove any of these factors and the fire cannot occur or will extinguish itself if it is already burning.

Classification of Fires and Selection of Extinguishers

Fires are classified into four general categories depending on the type of material or fuel involved. The type of fire determines the type of extinguisher that should be used to extinguish it.

1. Class A fires involve materials such as wood, paper, and cloth which produce glowing embers or char.
2. Class B fires involve flammable gases, liquids, and greases, including gasoline and most hydrocarbon liquids which must be vaporized for combustion to occur.
3. Class C fires involve fires in live electrical equipment or in materials near electrically powered equipment.
4. Class D fires involve combustible metals, such as magnesium, zirconium, potassium, and sodium.

Extinguishers will be selected according to the potential fire hazard, the construction and occupancy of facilities, hazard to be protected, and other factors pertinent to the situation.

In operating a fire extinguisher, it is help­ful to remember the word “PASS” to guide you through each step. PASS stands for Pull, Aim, Squeeze, and Sweep.

Step 1 – Pull the pin. Some extinguishers require releasing a lock latch or pressing a puncture lever.

Step 2 – Aim low. Point the extinguisher nozzle at the base of the fire.

Step 3 – Squeeze the handle while holding the extinguisher upright. This releases the extinguishing agent.

Step 4 – Sweep from side to side. Keep the extinguisher aimed at the base of the fire, and sweep back and forth until it appears to be out. Watch the fire area. If fire breaks out again, repeat the process.

Most portable extinguishers work according to these directions. Each unit carries specific directions for its use printed on the extin­guisher case. It is important to be familiar with these instructions before an emergency.

Fire extinguishers require routine inspection, maintenance, and testing. Employers are responsible for the required monthly visual and annual maintenance checks. Routine maintenance information is included with the operator’s manual or may be obtained from the manufacturer. Specific information on hydrostatic testing of fire extinguishers is contained in CFR 29 1910.157(f). Reusable fire extinguishers must be recharged after every use. Disposable fire extinguishers can be used only once and must be replaced after one use or 12 years from the date of manufacture.

If extinguishers are to be used by employees, then train­ing needs to take place upon initial employment and at least annually thereafter. If extinguishers are not intended for employee use and the employer has an emergency action plan and a fire prevention plan, then training is not required.

LIFTING AND YOUR BACK (Preventing Back Injury)

Low back pain is the most common work-related medical problem in the United States and the second most common reason for doctor visits among U.S. citizens, according to the National Center for Health Statistics. It affects more than 20 million Americans and is the leading cause of disability among people ages 19 - 45. It hits the bottom line fairly hard, too: low back is the No. 1 leading cause of missed work days, costing Americans $60 billion per year in treatments and American businesses about $15 billion annually. It's estimated that at least 80 percent of all Americans will experience some form of low back pain at some point in their lives.

Last year, about 500,000 back and neck surgeries were performed in the United States. Since there are many non-surgical treatments for low back pain some experts believe that many of these operations were unnecessary.

For a comparison there are about 600,000 Cardiac Artery Bypass  procedures  performed in the United States each year. Other "open heart" surgeries include 80,000 valve surgeries, and 2,300 heart transplants annually for a total of 682,300.

For a comparison there are about 600,000 Cardiac Artery Bypass  procedures  performed in the United States each year. Other "open heart" surgeries include 80,000 valve surgeries, and 2,300 heart transplants annually for a total of 682,300.

Interestingly, while many Americans know the role cholesterol, diet and exercise plays in preventing heart attack, few Americans know how to prevent spine problems, or a "back attack." While everyone understands that chest pain is a signal from the body that something is wrong, random bouts of back pain are largely ignored until the problem becomes more serious, and a disc is herniated.

RULES FOR LIFTING

1. Plan the Lift
Before attempting to lift or move something heavy, it is important to step back and analyze what needs to be accomplished. Think about how heavy the object is, how far it has to be moved, where it is going to end up? What is the shape of the object? Is it cumbersome, will it be easily manipulated? Is it a two-person job? Is there anything in the way that needs to be moved prior to lifting? Stand directly in front of the load, with feet about shoulder width apart. One foot should be in front of the other for balance.(See Figure 1)

2. Correct Positioning

Get Help if Needed. If the load is too heavy, DON'T TRY TO LIFT IT ALONE. Find someone who can help carry it, or if possible, break the load into two smaller, more manageable loads. Bend the knees and tighten the stomach muscles. Using both hands, grasp the object firmly and pull it as close as possible to your body.(See Figure 2 and 3)

3. Lift With the Legs -- NOT THE BACK
Since leg muscles are stronger than back muscles, lift with the legs, until they are straightened. Avoid jerky movements. Keep the natural curve in the spine; don't bend at the waist. To turn, move the feet around by pivoting on the toes, not by twisting at the stomach. (See Figure 4)

When it is time to set the load down, it is very important that it is done correctly. Reverse the procedures for lifting to minimize the strain on the back. If the load is going to set on the floor, bend the knees and position the load in front of you. If the load is to go at table height, set it down and keep in contact with the load until it is secure on the table.

There is one final important rule: "THINK BEFORE YOU LIFT". It is better for workers to use their own common sense than to teach them specific lifting, pushing, pulling, walking, climbing or jumping procedures. This is not to imply that unsafe behaviors should not be pointed out to others and corrected. For example, "common sense" may tell certain people to jump down from heights of several feet. Certainly, when people exhibit this type of behavior or when they attempt to carry two hundred pounds, the errors of their behavior should be brought to their attention. Remember, in lifting, you are the major cause of your injuries; therefore, you have the major responsibility for preventing them.

MSDS

The MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheet) is used by chemical manufacturers and vendors to convey hazard information to users. The Hazard Communication Standard requires providing information about the hazardous chemicals that employees are exposed to, product labels and other forms of warning, material safety data sheets, appropriate training, and a written hazard communication program. The Office of Health and Safety has written the Hazard Communication Program to comply with this requirement. Personnel identified as having specific responsibility for implementing the plan are supervisors. The Office of Health and Safety is responsible for providing consultation and specific training when needed. Remember that this standard applies to those employees who do not work in a laboratory.

The supervisor is responsible for acquiring and updating material safety data sheets for all hazardous chemicals found in their work area. The material safety data sheets should be reviewed before using the chemical and kept in the work area so that they are readily accessible to all.

If you have more than one material safety data sheet for a hazardous chemical from the same manufacturer, check the date and use the most current one discarding all others. To obtain further information or assistance in interpreting material safety data sheets, contact the Office of Health and Safety or local safety authority.

A material safety data sheet must be developed and sent with those products that are synthesized and distributed with the OSHA Hazard Communication Standard [29 CFR Part 1910.1200(f)(1-5)] if they contain hazardous chemicals in concentrations greater than one percent (or 0.1% for carcinogens). It is the responsibility of the laboratory synthesizing the product to develop and distribute the material safety data sheet.

A manufacturer or distributor of a chemical product must send material safety data sheets to the purchaser with the initial shipment of a product/hazardous chemical and with each update of the material safety data sheet. Material safety data sheets will either accompany or precede the shipment. However, the manufacturer or distributor is not required to send material safety data sheets with subsequent orders of the same product.